History of France Intolerance in Algeria - Middle East Prospect Part 1

History of intolerance of France in Algeria
Illustrated in particular by that of Oran
and Prospect for the Middle East
By Didier Bertin - February 5, 2010

PART 1

I-BIRTH OF OUAHRAN

After the reign of Carthage and from third century BC to fifth century the current region of Oran, was under influence of Roman Empire with a brief presence of Vandals and Byzantines. In 937, a very small agglomeration of few house built by sailors from Andalusia sailors living from trade with west Algerian area was built in the current location of Oran. The place was named Ouahran meaning in Arabic  " two Lions " dual grammatical form of Ouahr ( lion). It must be noted that one of the heights near Oran was called "Mountain of the Lions ", which lets assume  a presence of these animals in a far past. Two Lions appeared on the French blazon of the city and in the form of Auguste Caïn's statues at feet of the main external staircase of the City hall of Oran. Oran is thus a relatively recent city.

Ouahran was then governed by successive Arab dynasties: Fatimides, Almoravides Al Murabiyuns, those of the Ribats (the fortresses), Almohads - Al Muwahhidduns, the Unitarian groups and Ziyanids, governors of Tlemcen.

With Ziyanids, the maritime business with big cities on the Mediterranean Sea developed, but the real birth of Oran dated from Spanish intervention in 1509 in response to the plundering action of Pirates of  Ouahran against Spanish ships and coast cities.

II-ORAN: SPANISH PRESIDIO FOR THREE CENTURIES

In 1509, the army of Cardinal Ximenez, commanded by Pedro Navarro conquered Ouahran, which became a Spanish Presidio and started then a real development. Pirates continued their attacks from other places involving continuing Spanish retaliations.

Turkey was in conflict with the Christian countries regarding the control of the Mediterranean Sea Ports. Barbaros Hızır Hayreddin -, a Christian pirate converted to Islam obtained the support of the Turkish Sultan, Soliman the Magnificent to conquest in 1520 and in the name of Turkey, the main cities of Algeria except Oran. This was also a reply to “Reconquista” ended in 1492 with the fall of Grenada. Thereafter, Algiers was governed by a Dey in the city of Algiers supported by three Beys in cities from Constantine to Medea. 

From 1509 till 1792 – except a brief Turkish occupation from 1708 to 1732, I.E. during almost 3 centuries, Oran was a Spanish Presidio similar to Melilla and Ceuta, on Morocco’s territory, which are still Spanish cities today. As a matter of facts, the city was taken by the Turks in 1708 but the Spaniards commanded by Count de Montemar repossessed it from 1732.

Spanish made few attempts to extend beyond Oran and preferred to develop a fortified town there in particular to receive prisoners and exiles of Spain as the other Spanish fortified cities of North Africa. Marques of Santa Cruz, Alvarez de Bazan y Silva built a fort on the heights of the city in 1690, which was named Fort of Santa Cruz and in a way became a symbol of the city.

In 1790, the city counted approximately 600 houses and 5000 inhabitants among who 2800 were exiled from Spain. During the same year, the city was shaken by a violent earthquake which made 3000 victims. This disaster discouraged King of Spain, Charles IV who abandoned the city to the Turks on March 6th, 1792. Beys of west Algeria transferred then their capital from Mascara to Oran.

Spanish Presidios of Africa are small enclaves, closed on themselves, without ambition of territorial, economic or cultural expansion and on top closed to the populations from the outside; their populations are mainly Spanish or from Spain. Presidios do not correspond to the traditional model of the colonialism and were able to escape the process of decolonization.

The History of Oran until 1790 is rather similar to that of Melilla. Melilla was dominated by Carthaginians, then by Romans, and became an Arabic city in the 8th century transformed into bastion of piracy. Melilla was conquered by Don Pedro de Estopinan in 1487 for Dukes de Medina Sidonia, and passed under the Spanish crown in 1556 until now.

III –ORAN, FRENCH OVERSEAS CITY: MORE THAN A CENTURY OF INTEGRATION AND OF CRYPTO DESINTEGATION

1-Processus of integration and dynamics of the principle of nationality

The conquest of Algeria in 1830 was an unexpected result of a punitive expedition. This expedition originated from a diplomatic and commercial conflict with the Dey of Algiers and from the will of King Charles X to divert the attention of the French people of internal problems by offering them a military victory.

In 1827, the Dey of Algiers requested the payment of a corn delivery made to French army in 1795 by two Jewish traders of Algiers: Messrs Bacri (who became the representative of the Jewish Community of Algiers to the French authorities after 1830) and Busnach who was murdered by a Janissary 22 years earlier.

Since France was reluctant to pay this debt, the Dey slapped the French Ambassador with his range. Furthermore, Algiers put the sea traffic in total insecurity because of the activities of Pirates from Algeria called also "Barbary Corsairs”. Denmark, England, Netherlands and USA chose to bomb Algiers in reprisals, whereas other countries preferred to pay them a ransom. (Portugal, Naples).

The French conquest of Algeria was eased by the absence of support from the local population to the Turkish authorities because of their dissatisfaction.

Interest of colonization of Algeria appeared quickly because of the small local population of approximately 2 500 000 inhabitants in the 1830s as compared to the country huge size of the country of about 2 280 000 km2 with Sahara I.E. four times the size of France, of the long Mediterranean Coast of 1000 km in the north and doors of Black Africa in the south.

In 1840 France decided to control the totality of the Algerian territory. From 1844, the Moslem population was managed by Arabic Military Desks. The target of these Desks was to establish close relations with local populations. In these Military Desks Officers had to learn Arabic, as well as the various Algerian dialects and even Tamasheq (language of Touaregs, people from Sahara). Reports from these Desks were as well anthropological, historic, linguistic and literary. An officer became a specialist of the rich Tamasheq literature: Major Bissuel made a huge work on Tamasheq writing and poetry. The role of these Officers in Algeria until 1870 was thus original and open minded; they were paternalistic but liberal administrators for the local populations on the contrary of what happened with Army after 1870 up to its very hostile position in the fifties until 1962.

The Arabic Military Desks were eliminated after the fall of the Second Empire in 1870, and the Moslem populations were after narrowly controlled by the Civil Authorities, which appeared to be narrow minded regarding local populations.

The civil authorities were dominated by the French colonists and the Muslims were locked into the narrow status of the “Native population”, which established the inferiority of Muslims people as compared to European people. This new situation led to uprisings in Kabylia in 1871, followed by deportations in New Caledonia.

The new status of Muslims gave them much more dissatisfaction than the access of Jewish people to French Nationality. The access of Jewish people to French Nationality generated a strong dissatisfaction from conservative Muslims as well as from the local European people.

As a matter of facts and from 1881, the code of the “Native” population established 27 constraints among which the limitation of movements and meetings, the compulsory chores and the special tax called “the Arabic tax,” which was only cancelled after World War 2 in 1919.

The local European population increased substantially as a result of immigration mainly from France and Spain, but also from other European countries. An intense European populating of Algeria was made possible by an opened concept of naturalization, as well as by a wide free distribution of lands. The term "European" is often utilized in description of the population of Algeria before 1962. In fact these European people were French by origin and naturalization; this notion of European is resilient probably because of the diverse and recent origins of the French people of Algeria up to the independence in 1962.

The integration of Algeria to France was slow down during the second Empire, because Napoleon III thought that Algeria had to be an Arabic Kingdom under French protectorate and not a French territory – Reference: “Moniteur” Newspaper dated February 6, 1863. He also wanted to offer French citizenship to those who would desire. As a matter of facts, in 1865 he promulgated a “Senatus Consultum” (meaning law) on the naturalization opened to Jews and Muslims. But becoming French citizen involved the acceptation of the ascendancy of the French laws on the Rabbinical or Koran’s laws and only 370 Jews and Muslims took this opportunity of becoming French citizens from 1865 till 1870.

The integration of Algeria to France was also achieved by the imposition of the French language as the official language and of the French School System.

In 1848, Algeria was divided into three departments: Oran, Algiers and Constantine districts each being represented by one member of the parliament, but the effective administrative integration of Algeria to France took place in 1881. Sahara was excluded from this administrative organization because of its negligible population in number. In 1896, a Constitution established a local representation including 48 European and 21 Muslims.

In 1947, the status of Algeria was so redefined: "Group of civil Districts with a financial autonomy and with a particular organization ". The executive power was devolved to a General Governor appointed by France and the legislative power to a kind of local Parliament including 120 representatives out of which 60 French people and 60 Natives, meaning Muslims.

This equality of numbers of representatives for French and Natives had no sense because French were approximately one million and the Muslims 7 millions. This suggested that one French person had same right as seven Muslims and this was not bearable for an equalitarian Republic. This new status constituted however an important evolution for the Muslims, because it illustrated the end to the execrable status of “Native” abolished only in 1944.

The process of integration of Algeria to France was promised to failure because it neglected the hyper-increase of Moslem population.

From 1840 till 1961, the Moslem population increased by 260 % and by about 700 % from 1901 till 2005. From 1961 till 2005 the Algerian population increased by about 3 % per annum, which is one of the strongest population growth of the world. The Algerian population is increased from 9 000 000 in 1961 to 32 500 000 in 2005. This hyper-growth is certainly one of the heaviest problems of the Algerian Government.

If Algeria would have been integrated to France, France would have counted approximately 40 % of Muslims, what would have questioned its nature. Algeria and France have a different own identities, which would have been difficult to merge. When we see the long way to do and hurdle to overcome about European Union, It is wiser that each nation may have first its own country.

The first attempt of FLN (National Liberation Front of Algeria) took place in 1954.In 1958, Pierre Pflimlin, Member of Parliament elected in Strasbourg and belonging to MRP (Christian Democrat), was assumed to replace Felix Gaillard as head of Executive (Council President); he was suspected to have the wish of negotiating with FLN. France had just begun to undertaken an active decolonization policy. Indian French territories came back under Indian authority from 1952 to 1954, Indochina and linked territories became independent in 1954 and Tunisia and Morocco (protectorates) became independent in 1956.

Certain supporters of General De Gaulle, who wanted him back to power encouraged in 1958 French people of Algeria and French Army based in Algeria to revolt in order to impose the return to power of General De Gaulle. He was presented to them as the sole recourse to avoid Independence of Algeria. Army supported General De Gaulle because they wanted to maintain the colonial Empire for nationalistic and strategic reasons. On May 13th, 1958, General Massu, who had just led a very tough repression against the FLN, "demanded" to French Republic, the creation of a Government under exceptional rules to preserve  Algeria as integral part of France. Two days later, General Salan who commanded the French army in Algeria supported officially this request. On May 29th, the president of the Republic, Rene Coty asked the Parliament to invest General de Gaulle as head of Executive power in order to please the Army.  General De Gaulle went thus back in power as a result of a Military Coup.  By this act the fourth Republic fell to leave place to the authoritarian fifth Republic of General de Gaulle. France still functions today under the Constitution of fifth Republic. General De Gaulle was finally agreed by vote because of his prestige due to his action during World War 2 enabling France’s people to be consider as ally despite official French Government collaboration with Germany.

Very quickly, General de Gaulle disappointed the partisans of French Algeria by announcing his intention to grant Algeria its independence. The dark side of De Gaulle‘s policy regarding Algeria was a useless violent and bloody war against FLN and Algerian people since he never had intention to keep Algeria under French Authority. We may only assume that this war made to please the Army and for other internal political reasons but human price was high.

The Generals who organized the Coup in 1958, except General Massu, wanted then to repeat in April 1961, their coup against General De Gaulle, but on the contrary of Rene Coty he did resist to them and they failed. On July 3rd, 1962, Algeria was declared independent and the whole European population of 1 500 000 persons fled away in a few days to France because of their disagreement with independence and fears of retaliation already started.